By Jane C. Wheeler, Ph.D.
Both archaeozoological and ethnohistorical sources document the
pivotal role of pastoralism in the Andean economy prior to European
contact. The origins of this tradition began with domestication of the
alpaca and
llama in the high elevation (3800+ meters above sea level)
central
Andean puna ecosystem of Peru 6-7000 years ago.By 3800 years
Before Present (BP), evidence of camelid
herding is found
in the lower
elevation inter-Andean
valleys of Peru,
in northern Chile and
northwestern
Argentina. Along
the Pacific
coast of Peru this practice is first
documented
some 1600 years ago,
at the same time that llama
remains first appear in Ecuador.
Approximately 700
years later, both alpacas
and llamas were
being raised on the south coast of
Peru, as well as in the
cloud forest
along the
eastern slope of
the Andes.
|
Figure 1. View of El Yaral.
Note horizontal architectural terraces on the hillside above the river,
where houses were built after ritual sacrifice and burial of llamas and alpacas.
The grass area is a natural corral of approximately one square kilometer extent. |
Based primarily on the study of
fragmented bone remains recovered
during archaeological excavations, the
aforementioned reports provide no
information on physical appearance of
the domestic alpacas and llamas. Textile
remnants found at sites in the Atacama
desert of northern Chile record the
appearance of black fiber from
presumably domestic animals around
3,000 years ago, while the earliest
known (but certainly not the oldest) use
of camelid fiber in Peruvian weaving
comes from fabrics preserved at coastal
sites dated approximately 2,500-700 BP.
In northwestern Argentina, llama fiber
cordage has been dated to 1450 BP.
However, it is only with the discovery of
700-1300 year old naturally desiccated
llama and alpaca mummies from
southern Peru that information on the
physical appearance of ancient animals
has become available.
The discovery of 26 perfectly
preserved, naturally desiccated alpaca
and llama mummies at the pre-Inca (A.D.
700-1300) Chiribaya culture site of El
Yaral, provides a first ever view of
preconquest animals. Located in the
extremely arid coastal desert of southern
Peru (17°01’ south latitude, 71°00’ west
longitude), the site lies 50 km inland at an
elevation of 1000 meters above sea level.
Covering approximately 12.3 hectares,
and containing more than 330 elongated
residential terraces, El Yaral rises 120
meters up the barren hillside at the
extreme south-western end of the
Moquegua valley. It overlooks a natural
corral, approximately one square
kilometer in extent, which is enclosed by
sand covered hills and watered by the
Osmore River (Figure 1 at left).
Extensive river bottom agricultural land
lies immediately to the north of the site.
The El Yaral structures were built of cane
walls with wooden support posts for cane
mat roofs, and subdivided by rows of
vertical canes into anywhere from two to
eight rooms which were used for storage,
cooking, chicha (a fermented maize
beverage) preparation, sleeping and ritual
activities. Compacted floors of fine
gravel, sand and clay covered offerings of
guinea pigs, coca leaves, thread wrapped
sticks, turquoise and marine shell beads,
small silver plaques, feathers, fish, maize
and burnt charcoal, as well as sacrificial alpacas and llamas.
These animals had
been killed by a massive blow between the
ears and rapidly interred. The sand in
which they were buried and the extreme
aridity of the climate produced
exceptionally well preserved specimens.
Contemporary llamas and alpacas are
classified on the basis of fiber
characteristics and physical appearance.
Recognized llama phenotypes include the
hairy, coarse, sparsely fibered ccara; the
coarse, more densely fibered chaku; the
long, wavy fiber suri and animals with an
intermediate fiber type. Most alpacas
exhibit dense, crimped huacaya fleeces, but
a small number ( <10%) are distinguished
by long, wavy suri fiber. Intermediate
alpaca fleece types also exist but are not a
recognized phenotype.
Virtually all llamas,
and 75% of all alpacas, are held by
traditional herders who fail to consistently
breed for selected phenotypes and both
inbreeding and hybridization between
llamas and alpacas are acknowledged
problems. Nonetheless, elaborate
classification systems based on color and
conformation characteristics exist among
Quechua and Aymara herders, suggesting
that earlier management strategies
selectively bred for fiber characteristics in
both alpacas and llamas. Although written
records were not part of Andean
civilization, detailed data on size and color
of flocks was kept utilizing the quipu, a
memory aid made of knotted camelid fiber
strands. Under Inca rule, an annual census
was taken of the state and shrine herds.
Special emphasis was placed on breeding
pure brown, black and white animals for
sacrifice to specific deities, as well as on
quality fiber production for the state
controlled textile industry and the
production of sturdy pack llamas for the
Inca army. Given such rigorous demands,
it is likely that specific llama and alpaca
breeds were maintained which
subsequently disappeared during the
Spanish conquest. The data from El Yaral,
presented here, suggests that the origin of
such breeds may predate the Inca Empire.
Pre-conquest breeds
The El Yaral llamas and alpacas were
identified on the basis of phenotypic
attributes (conformation, fiber
distribution) and confirmed by incisor
morphology. The age and sex of each
specimen was determined, when possible, on the basis of dental eruption and
preserved genitalia. Observations on fleece
type and color were recorded, and
evaluation of the fiber producing qualities
of 6 llamas and 4 alpacas from the site was
carried out. Samples of skin with attached
fiber (1.5x1.5cm) were taken when
possible, at 11 standardized sites on the left
side of the animals: on the lower neck (A2),
at equidistant points from the fore to hind
legs at the level of the sacral tuberosity
(A3-A6) and mid-way between the dorsal
and ventral surfaces (B3-B6), as well as
half-way down the fore (C3) and hind (C6)
legs.
Fiber length was recorded, and 1mm
segments of 300 to 500 fibers were cut
from next to the skin of each sample and
diameter measurements were recorded for
200 fibers per sample. Experimental
desiccation of fresh llama skin samples was
carried out under varying conditions, and
statistical analysis of the results, revealed
no significant alteration in fiber diameter
during these processes.
Fiber diameter measurements from the
El Yaral alpacas and llamas (Figure 2)
revealed the existence of four distinct
groups of animals (Figure 3, next page).
The raw data reflect natural variation in
fiber diameter across the body, with coarser/hairier samples coming from the
neck (site A2) and legs (sites C3, C6). The
finest fiber is located along the back (sites
A3-A6), with a tendency towards a gradual
increase in diameter at mid-rib height (sites
B3-6). Taken together, the eight samples
from sites A3-6 and B3-6, correspond to
the fleece, and represent that portion of the
fiber which is shorn for use in textile
manufacture. Based on complete (not
dehaired) samples (n=8 per animal),
average fleece diameters for the two alpaca
groups were found to be 17.9 (sd ± 1. 0µm)
and 23.6 (± 1.9µm). Llama fleeces likewise
included a fine fiber group at 22.2± 1.8µm,
as well as a coarse fiber animal at 32.7 ±
4.2µm.
Analyses of variance indicate that
the differences between these ancient
groups are significant.
To the best of our knowledge, the
heritability factor of fiber fineness has not
been determined for llamas and alpacas,
although 0.22, 0.27 and 0.38 have been
reported for fleece weight. It has been
observed, however, that fiber diameter
generally increases with age and number
of shearing events. There is also some
indication that a rich diet may increase
fiber diameter, while finer fiber may be
produced by animals kept on a low plane

FIGURE 2. El Yaral alpaca and llama fiber diameter in microns, by sample site, 200 fiber count.
A2-A6: adjacent to midline from neck to tail, B3-B6: at midrib from shoulder to hip,
C3: lower front; and C6: lower rear legs, - n.s. = no sample
of nutrition, and during periods of
physiological stress. In the Peruvian Andes,
it is generally believed that a relationship
exists between elevation and alpaca fiber
fineness. As altitude increases, pasture
quality decreases and environmental
stressors become more severe, but the
relationship of these factors to fiber
diameter remains to be demonstrated.
Nevertheless, the presumed correlation
between fine fiber and high altitude is often
cited as evidence that alpacas can be reared
successfully only in this habitat.
In Peru, fiber diameter values reported
for contemporary Andean llamas and
alpacas vary greatly. This is due, in part, to
differences in the samples studied,
measurement techniques and reporting.
It
is not always clear, for example, if published
figures come from complete or dehaired
fleeces, and extreme care must be taken to
select comparable data sets. Even with this
caveat, the range of values reported for
alpaca and llama fleeces is so great that it
would be misleading to give a single value
for each. Alpaca fibers have been reported
from 9 to 88µm, and llama fibers from 8 to
144µm, indicating a variable but significant presence of coarse
guard hair in both groups. In comparing the El Yaral mummies
with contemporary animals, we have chosen age matched samples
insofar as possible (Figure 3).
The fiber diameters of the ancient alpaca specimens were
found to be significantly finer relative to today’s animals. The
Chiribaya extra fine fiber alpaca group (named after the
culture to which El Yaral pertained) measured from 10-14µm
less than huacaya alpacas of the same age, while the Chiribaya
fine fiber alpaca group registered 4.7-8.5µm less. Comparable
age and sample data on Peruvian suri fleeces is not available. It
is generally considered that the wavy suri fiber is finer than the
crimped huacaya fiber, but insufficient information is available
to confirm this. Among the mummified alpacas, however, the
finest fiber came from animal 119, a 24 month old male with
crimped fiber (Figure 4), while the other fleeces were wavy
(animals 317 and 228 (Figure 5) or contained both crimped

Figure 3. Mean fleece diameter of contemporary and prehispanic South American camelids.
All figures represent complete fleece counts except where noted (u = undercoat, h = hair).
El Yaral fleece data represent the mean of 8 sample locations.

Figure 4. (above) Alpaca 119 from structure 70 at El Yaral.

Figure 5. (below left) Alpaca 228 from structure 70 at El Yaral.

Figure 6. (below right) Alpaca 314 from structure 193 at El Yaral.
and wavy fibers (animal 314; Figure 6).
Fiber diameter measurements of the six
El Yaral llamas revealed the presence of fine
and coarse fiber animals. Chiribaya fine
fiber llama fleeces (n=5) averaged 22.2 ±
1.8µm. Comparative figures for 12 months
old males from Puno, Peru, vary from
18.8µm undercoat/39.8µm hair in the more
heavily fibered chakus to 20.1µm
undercoat/73.1µm hair in ccaras, increasing
to 22.0µm undercoat/42.2µm hair in chakus
and 25.2µm undercoat/77.7µm hair in
ccaras at 24 months (Figure 3). Although
these figures cannot be directly compared
with the complete fiber counts on the El
Yaral specimens, the nondehaired ancient
fleeces are as fine as the dehaired modern
ones.
Abundant coarse hairs were present in
all the contemporary samples, while in
contrast, only one of the five ancient llamas
(237) had visible fine hair in the fleece. Two
others had very fine hair (248, 231) and two
were single coated with no perceptible hair
in the fleece (243 Figure 7, 237). In
contrast, the sixth El Yaral llama (247), a 3
month old male, had a coarse hairy coat
with an almost equally coarse undercoat. At
32.7 ± 4.2 µm, the fiber diameter of this
animal is greater than that reported in
contemporary llamas (Figure 3).
Based on fiber diameter, it would appear
that 3 possible fiber producing breeds of
domestic camelids may have existed at El
Yaral. These include the Chiribaya extra
fine and fine fiber alpacas and the
Chiribaya fine fiber llama. Although
alpacas continue to be raised for fiber up to
the present, llama fiber is generally deemed
too coarse and hairy for textile production,
and these animals are reared primarily for
use as pack animals and for meat. Early Spanish writers were impressed by the
large pack trains which accompanied the
Inca army, and llamas were valued as beasts
of burden during the colonial period. But,
not all llamas are reared for cargo, and in
some communities they are selectively bred
for fiber production. The Chiribaya fine
fiber llamas suggest that this practice,
which has virtually disappeared, may have
ancient roots. Regardless, because so many
environmental factors can affect it, fiber
diameter data alone is insufficient for
affirming the existence of breeds.
Evidence that selective breeding was
practiced at El Yaral is seen in a uniformity
of fleece characteristics which are lacking in
contemporary Andean llamas and alpacas.
In the ancient specimens, variation in fiber
diameters across the fleece is minimal, and
hairy patches are rare even in the coarse
fiber llama, while in living animals fiber
diameter tends to vary greatly and hairiness
is a problem in both alpacas and llamas.
Even though the alpaca is considered to
have a single coat comprised entirely of
undercoat fiber, animals with up to 40%
hair in the fleece are known today.
Additionally, the existence of single coat
llamas with uniformly fine fiber at El
Yaral,provides evidence of a variety or
breed which is no longer recognized.
Another indication of selective breeding
for fiber production is seen in the uniform
coloration of the mummies. Only two of
the El Yaral specimens are multicolored,
the coarse fiber llama male which was
eliminated from the gene pool at 3
months, and a brown and white alpaca
(317). The possibility that the coarse fiber
llama represents a non fiber producing
(possibly cargo bearing) breed should be

Figure 7. Llama 237 from structure 70 at El Yaral.

Figure 8. Looted llama and alpaca remains at the site
of Chiribaya Alta, Ilo.
taken into account. The Chiribaya fine
fiber llamas included one pure white, two
red brown, and two grey/beige animals.
Under Inca rule, animals of pure color
were required for sacrifice to particular
deities and the shrine herds bred for this
demand. White llamas were sacrificed to
the sun, red brown animals to Viracocha
at the beginning of the agricultural year,
and black animals were starved and
sacrificed in times of crisis. Whether or
not the llamas at El Yaral were sacrificed
to the same deities is unknown, but with
one exception, the requirement for pure
color high quality animals seems to have
been met. The mummified alpacas,
included the brown and white animal
mentioned above, as well as a white, a
brown and a vicuña-colored alpaca.
One final line of evidence suggestive that
the Chiribaya fine fiber llama was
selectively bred for fiber production is an
indication that fiber growth may have been
more rapid than in contemporary animals.
In the unshorn or partly shorn specimens
(243, 273), a discrepancy was noted in the
age predicted on the basis of fiber length
and the age of the animal as predicted by
dental eruption. Although the data on fiber
growth comes from animals raised at high
altitude and may not therefore be fully
comparable, fiber lengths of 13 and 18 cm
for llama 273 would suggest an animal
more than 2 years of age, but in fact the
animal is >9 (likely 12) months.
The same
is true for llama 243, with fiber lengths of
14 and 16 cm, the expected age would be
more than 2 years, but the real age is <18
(likely 15) months. Clearly selection for
faster fiber growth would be of economic importance if the goal of breeding is for
fiber production. None the less, it should
be observed that a good plane of nutrition
is also required in order to sustain such
growth. Unfortunately, all four alpacas had
been shorn prior to sacrifice, so
comparable data is lacking.
Clearly the coastal desert was not a bad
place to raise llamas and alpacas: fleece
fineness and uniformity, accelerated fiber
growth, uniform coloration, and the
existence of a single coat llama all point to
controlled breeding, reproducible results
and the probable existence of breeds. The
skill of the Chiribaya culture herders is
recorded in the mummified alpacas and
llamas from El Yaral, and further
confirmed by the faunal assemblage from
Chiribaya Alta, a nearby, contemporary site
(Figure 8). Examination of 140 sacrificial
llamas from intact burials revealed that
they had been selected in accordance with
herd management priorities. Only 12.9%
of the llamas killed were of prime breeding
age (>24 months), and 3 (or 2.1%) of these
had dental pathologies which would have
been cause for sacrifice. Of the remaining
122 animals, 69.6% were culled before first
breeding at 21 months; 15.7% were killed
after the first and before the end of the
second breeding season at 21-42 months,
and 2.9% were old adults probably past
reproductive age. Such a pattern would be
produced by the elimination of undesirable
and infertile animals from the herd which
was raised locally under a controlled
breeding program. The end product of
these efforts were fiber producing alpacas
and llamas of unparalleled quality.
In contrast with the preconquest alpacas
and llamas from El Yaral, today’s animals
are characterized by a lack of uniformity.
Coarsening of the fiber, increased
hairiness and the increased variation in
fiber diameter across the fleece of huacaya
and suri alpacas, as well as the apparent
disappearance of fine fiber llamas, can
almost certainly be explained by a
breakdown in controlled breeding
accompanied by extensive hybridization
produced by events of the conquest. Taken
together, the four preconquest breeds
bracket the range of fiber diameter
measurements in today’s animals, and
crossing with the hairy Chiribaya coarse
fiber llama could have produced this result.
Scientific study of the role of hybridization
in the evolution of today’s llamas and
alpacas has only recently been undertaken
utilizing DNA, and has revealed alarming
levels of hybridization. On a trans-Andean
level it has been found that only 20% of
alpacas have not suffered hybridization
with llamas at some point in their ancestry.
As of yet unpublished data place the
incidence at just less than 6% in some
regions of Peru. Sadly, hybridization
between alpacas and llamas - heritage of
the conquest - continues apace making the
genetically pure alpaca an endangered
species. Although attempts to determine
the genetic purity of the mummies
through DNA analysis have not yet
proven possible, preliminary study in
contemporary alpacas points to a possible
relationship between fine fiber and purity.
Much research remains to be done, but
one thing is clear, we urgently need to
identify and protect the few remaining
unhybridized alpacas, and these may well
turn out to be the true descendents of the
Chiribaya alpacas and llamas.
CQ
Author’s Note:
Much of the information contained in this article
comes from: J.C. Wheeler, A.J.F. Russel and H.
Redden 1995 Llamas and Alpacas: Pre-conquest
Breeds and Post-conquest Hybrids. Journal of
Archaeological Science, 22:833-840. 1995.
The excavations at El Yaral and the other
Chiribaya sites in Moquegua were directed by
Jane Buikstra (Arizona State University) and
Don Rice (Southern Illinois University) with
support from US National Science Foundation
grants BNS85-10877 and BNS89-20769.

Jane C. Wheeler studying 1,300 year old llama mummy from the site
of El Yaral, Moquegua, Peru.
About the
Author
Jane Wheeler is
Vice President
for Research,
C O N O P A
(Coordinadora
de Investigación
y Desarrollo de Camélidos Sudamericanos),
Lima, Perú, jwheeler@conopa.org. She holds
degrees from American University, Cambridge
University, and the University of Michigan, and
completed postdoctoral studies at the University of
Paris. For more than 30 years she has conducted
broad based research on the South American
camelids, covering topics from origin, evolution
and domestication of alpacas and llamas, to
molecular genetics, breeding and fibre production,
as well as vicuña and guanaco genetics and
conservation. |